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The performance of a client-server system is influenced by two network factors: the bandwidth of the network (how many bits/sec it can transport) and the latency (how many seconds it takes for the first bit to get from the client to the server). Give an example of a network that exhibits high bandwidth and high latency. Then give an example of one with low bandwidth and low latency.

The dog can carry 21 gigabytes, or 168 gigabits. A speed of 18 km/hour equals 0.005 km/sec. The time to travel distance x km is x /0.005 = 200x sec, yielding a data rate of 168/200x Gbps or 840/x Mbps. For x < 5.6 km, the dog has a higher rate than the communication line.

答：横贯大陆的光纤连接可以有很多千兆位/秒带宽， 但是由于光速度传送要越过数千公里，时延将也高。相反，使用56 kbps调制解调器呼叫在同一大楼内的计算机则有低带宽和较低的时延。

Besides bandwidth and latency, what other parameter is needed to give a good characterization of the quality of service offered by a network used for digitized voice traffic?

A uniform delivery time is needed for voice, so the amount of jitter in the network is important. This could be expressed as the standard deviation of the delivery time. Having short delay but large variability is actually worse than a somewhat longer delay and low variability.

声音的传输需要相应的固定时间，因此网络时隙数量是很重要的。传输时间可以用标准偏差方式表示。 实际上，短延迟但是大变化性比更长的延迟和低变化性更糟。

A client-server system uses a satellite network, with the satellite at a height of 40,000 km. What is the best-case delay in response to a request?

The request has to go up and down, and the response has to go up and down. The total path length traversed is thus 160,000 km. The speed of light in air and vacuum is 300,000 km/sec, so the propagation delay alone is 160,000/300,000 sec or about 533 msec.

答：由于请求和应答都必须通过卫星，因此传输总路径长度为160,000千米。在空气和真空中的光速为300，000 公里/秒， 因此最佳的传播延迟为160,000/300，000秒，约533 msec。

A group of 2n - 1 routers are interconnected in a centralized binary tree, with a router at each tree node. Router i communicates with router j by sending a message to the root of the tree. The root then sends the message back down to j. Derive an approximate expression for the mean number of hops per message for large n, assuming that all router pairs are equally likely.

The mean router-router path is twice the mean router-root path. Number the levels of the tree with the root as 1 and the deepest level as n. The path from the root to level n requires n − 1 hops, and 0.50 of the routers are at this level. The path from the root to level n − 1 has 0.25 of the routers and a length of n - 2 hops. Hence, the mean path length, l, is given by:


.or.

This expression reduces to l = n - 2. The mean router-router path is thus 2n - 4.

这意味着，从路由器到路由器的路径长度相当于路由器到根的两倍。 若在树中，根深度为1，深度为n，从根到第n层需要n-1跳，在该层的路由器为0.50。 从根到n-1 层的路径有router的0.25和n–2跳步。 因此，路径长度l为：


或

This expression reduces to l＝n－2，这意味着，router-router 路径为2n-4。

What are two reasons for using layered protocols?

Among other reasons for using layered protocols, using them leads to breaking up the design problem into smaller, more manageable pieces, and layering means that protocols can be changed without affecting higher or lower ones.

答：通过协议分层可以把设计问题划分成较小的易于处理的片段。分层意味着某一层的协议的改变不会影响高层或低层的协议。

What is the principal difference between connectionless communication and connection-oriented communication?

Connection-oriented communication has three phases. In the establishment phase a request is made to set up a connection. Only after this phase has been successfully completed can the data transfer phase be started and data transported. Then comes the release phase. Connectionless communication does not have these phases. It just sends the data.

答：主要的区别有两条。 其一：面向连接通信分为三个阶段，第一是建立连接，在此阶段，发出一个建立连接的请求。只有在连接成功建立之后，才能开始数据传输，这是第二阶段。接着，当数据传输完毕，必须释放连接。而无连接通信没有这么多阶段，它直接进行数据传输。 其二：面向连接的通信具有数据的保序性， 而无连接的通信不能保证接收数据的顺序与发送数据的顺序一致。

Two networks each provide reliable connection-oriented service. One of them offers a reliable byte stream and the other offers a reliable message stream. Are these identical? If so, why is the distinction made? If not, give an example of how they differ.

Message and byte streams are different. In a message stream, the network keeps track of message boundaries. In a byte stream, it does not. For example, suppose a process writes 1024 bytes to a connection and then a little later writes another 1024 bytes. The receiver then does a read for 2048 bytes. With a message stream, the receiver will get two messages, of 1024 bytes

答：不相同。在报文流中，网络保持对报文边界的跟踪；而在字节流中，网络不做这样的跟踪。例如，一个进程向一条连接写了1024 字节，稍后又写了另外1024 字节。那么接收方共读了2048 字节。对于报文流，接受方将得到两个报文。每个报文1024 字节。 而对于字节流，报文边界不被识别。接收方把全部的2048 个字节当作一个整体，在此已经体现不出原先有两个报文的事实。

In some networks, the data link layer handles transmission errors by requesting damaged frames to be retransmitted. If the probability of a frame's being damaged is p, what is the mean number of transmissions required to send a frame? Assume that acknowledgements are never lost.

The probability, Pk , of a frame requiring exactly k transmissions is the probability of the first k-1 attempts failing, , times the probability of the k-th transmission succeeding, (1-p). The mean number of transmission is then just